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      <h2>Notes on KZG polynomial commitments</h2>

<p><em>2021-08-05</em></p>

<blockquote>
<p><strong>Warning</strong>: I want to state clearly that I&rsquo;m not a mathematician, I&rsquo;m just an amateur on math studying in my free time, and this article is just an attempt to try to sort the notes that I took while reading about the KZG Commitments.</p>
</blockquote>

<p>Few weeks ago I started reading about <a href="https://www.iacr.org/archive/asiacrypt2010/6477178/6477178.pdf">KZG Commitments</a> from the articles written by <a href="https://dankradfeist.de/ethereum/2020/06/16/kate-polynomial-commitments.html">Dankrad Feist</a>, by <a href="https://hackmd.io/@tompocock/Hk2A7BD6U">Tom Walton-Pocock</a> and by <a href="https://alinush.github.io/2020/05/06/kzg-polynomial-commitments.html">Alin Tomescu</a>. I want to thank them, because their articles helped me to understand a bit the concepts. I recommend spending the time reading their articles instead of this current notes.</p>

<div class="row">
    <div class="col-md-7">
	<br>
	In the following notes I've tried to summarize the KZG Commitments scheme with the concepts that helped me to follow the reasoning.
    </div>
    <div class="col-md-5" style="font-size:90%; padding:10px;border:1px solid #cfcfcf;">
	<b>Notation:</b><br>
	$[x]_1 = x G \in \mathbb{G}_1\newline
	[x]_2 = x H \in \mathbb{G}_2$
	<br>Where $\mathbb{G}_1 = \langle G \rangle$ and $\mathbb{G}_2 = \langle H \rangle$.
	<br>In other words: $G$ is the generator of $\mathbb{G}_1$, and $H$ is the generator of $\mathbb{G}_2$
    </div>
</div>

<h4>Trusted setup</h4>

<p>First of all, we need to generate a <em>Trusted Setup</em> that will be used later in the rest of steps. Here, the concept of <em>Trusted Setup</em> is quite similar to what we are familiar when dealing with other zk protocols such zkSNARKs, but with the advantage that for the <em>KZG Commitments</em> the nature of its <em>Trusted Setup</em> allows to have some kind of &lsquo;global&rsquo; <em>Trusted Setup</em> that can be used for different polynomials.</p>

<p>It should be computed in a <em>Multi-Party Computation</em> (<em>MPC</em>) fashion, and ensuring that at least one of the participants is honest, in order to ensure that the original parameter $\tau$ can not be restored.</p>

<p>The parameters of the <em>Trusted Setup</em> are generated by generating a random $\tau \in \mathbb{F}_p$, and from this parameter we can compute $[\tau^i]_1$ and $[\tau^i]_2$ for $i=0,&hellip;,n-1$:</p>

<p>$$
[\tau^i]_1 = ([\tau^0]_1, [\tau^1]_1, [\tau^2]_1, &hellip;, [\tau^{n-1}]_1)\newline
[\tau^i]_2 = ([\tau^0]_2, [\tau^1]_2, [\tau^2]_2, &hellip;, [\tau^{n-1}]_2)
$$</p>

<p>Which in additive representation is:
$$
(G, \tau G, \tau^2 G, &hellip;, \tau^{n-1} G) \in \mathbb{G}_1\newline
(H, \tau H, \tau^2 H, &hellip;, \tau^{n-1} H) \in \mathbb{G}_2
$$</p>

<p>The &lsquo;intuition&rsquo; about the <em>Trusted Setup</em> is that is like encrypting a secret value ($\tau$) that later will be used in the &lsquo;encrypted&rsquo; form to evaluate the polynomials.</p>

<h4>Commitments</h4>

<p>A commitment to a polynomial $p(x) = \sum^n_{i=0} p_i x^i$ is done by computing</p>

<p>$$c=[p(\tau)]_1$$</p>

<p>which is computed by $c = \sum^{deg(p(x))}_{i=0} [\tau^i] \cdot p_i$.</p>

<p>The prover would send the commitment to the polynomial $c$, and then the verifier would choose a value $z \in \mathbb{F}_p$, where $\mathbb{F}_p$ is the finite field of the polynomial.</p>

<h4>Evalutaion proofs</h4>

<p>To prove an evaluation of the polynomial at the choosen value $z$ such that $p(z)=y$, a quotient polynomial is computed: $q(x) = \frac{p(x)-y}{x-z}$. This polynomial is the proof that $p(z)=y$, as if $q$ exists it means that $p(x)-y$ is divisible by $x-z$, which means that it has a root at $z$, being $p(z)-y=0$.</p>

<p>Then, the evaluation proof is</p>

<p>$$\pi = [q(\tau)]_1$$</p>

<p>which, as when computing $c$, is computed by $\pi=\sum^{deg(q(x))}_{i=0} [\tau^i] \cdot q_i$.</p>

<p>Once computed, the prover would send this evaluation proof $\pi$ to the verifier.</p>

<h4>Verifying an evaluation proof</h4>

<p>In order to verify an evaluation proof, the verifier has the commitment $c=[p(\tau)]_1$, the evaluation $y=p(z)$, and the proof $\pi=[q(\tau)]_1$.</p>

<p>So, the verifier can check the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pairing-based_cryptography">pairing</a> evaluation:
$$\hat{e}(\pi, [\tau]_2 - [z]_2) == \hat{e}(c - [y]_1, H)$$</p>

<p>Where $[\tau]_2$ comes from the Trusted Setup, $[z]_2$ is point at which the polynomial is evaluated, and $[y]_1$ is the claimed value p(z). And $\pi$ and $c$ are given by the prover.</p>

<p>We can unroll that last equivalence, and see that:</p>

<p>$$
\hat{e}(\pi, [\tau]_2 - [z]_2) == \hat{e}(c - [y]_1, H)\newline
\Rightarrow \hat{e}([q(\tau)]_1, [\tau-z]_2) == \hat{e}([p(\tau)]_1 - [y]_1, H)\newline
\Rightarrow [q(\tau) \cdot (\tau-z)]_T == [p(\tau) - y]_T
$$</p>

<p>We can see that is the equation $q(x)(x-z)=p(x)-y$, which can be expressed as $q(x) = \frac{p(x) - y}{x-z}$, evaluated at $\tau$ from the <em>trusted setup</em>, which is not known: $q(\tau) = \frac{p(\tau) - y}{\tau-z}$.</p>

<h3>Conclusions</h3>

<p>The content covered in this notes is just a quick overview, but allows us to see the potential of the scheme. One next iteration from what we&rsquo;ve seen is the approach to do batch proofs, which allows us to evaluate at multiple points with a single evaluation proof. This scheme can be used as a <em>vector commitment</em>, using a polynomial where the $p(i) = x_i$ for all values of $x_i$ of the vector, which can be obtained from the $x_i$ values and computing the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lagrange_polynomial">Lagrange interpolation</a>. This is quite useful combined with the mentioned batch proofs. The <em>batch proofs</em> logic can be found at the <a href="https://arnaucube.com/blog/kzg-batch-proof.html">blog/kzg-batch-proof</a> notes (kind of the continuation of the current notes).</p>

<p>As a final note, in order to try to digest the notes, I&rsquo;ve did a <em>toy implementation</em> of this scheme at <a href="https://github.com/arnaucube/kzg-commitments-study">https://github.com/arnaucube/kzg-commitments-study</a>. It&rsquo;s quite simple, but contains the logic overviewed in this notes.</p>

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